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Metal	°F	°C
Sn Tin	450	232
Pb Lead	622	328
Zn Zinc	787	420
Al Aluminum	1,221	660
Ag Silver	1,763	962
Au Gold	1,948	1,064
Cu Copper	1,984	1,085
Fe Iron	2,800	1,538
Ti Titanium	3,034	1,668
Tu Tungsten	6,192	3,420

⚛ Electrons e^- have a charge of -1. They were discovered in 1897. Their Anti-Particle is the Positron.
⚛ Protons P⁺ have a charge of +1. They were discovered in 1866. Their Anti-Particle is the Anti-Proton. They are 1836 times heavier than Electrons e^-.
⚛ Neutrons N^o have no charge. They were discovered in 1932. Their Anti-Particle is the Anti-Neuton. They are 1838 times heavier than Electrons e^-.
⚛ Atomic numbers signify number of Protons in the Nucleus
⚛ Isotopes are Elements containing extra numbers of Neutrons in the Nucleus
⚛ Chemistry is concerned with the Electromagnetic Force which is 10³⁰ times stronger than Gravity, but 10⁹ times weaker than the Strong Nuclear Force.
⚛ The Strong Nuclear Force binds the Nucleus and is 10³⁹ times stronger than Gravity
⚛ Iron, Fe-56, has the largest stable Nucleus. All larger Nuclei are unstable to some degree.
⚛ All Elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive and exhibit spontaneous disintegration of their atomic nucleus, usually given as a Half-Life of the element. i.e. the amount of time that half of any given sample will have decayed into other Elements.
⚛ Valence Electrons are the only Electrons that participate in chemical bonding. They usually are the outermost electrons of an atom. When two or more Elements share Electrons in this way it is known as a Covalent Bond.
⚛ Alkalai Metals (Valence Group 1) have 1 Valence Electron that can be shared with another element
⚛ Alkalai Earths (Valence Group 2) have 2 Valence Electron that can be shared with other Element(s)
⚛ Halogens (Valence Group 6), the OXYGEN Group, have 6 Valence Electrons and need 2 more to complete their Valence Electron shell. have 7 Valence Electrons and need 1 more to complete their Valence Electron shell
⚛ The Noble Gases have their Valence electron shells completely filled and are extremely stable and non-reactive
⚛ STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) is defined as 273.15 °K (0°C, 32°F) and 100 kPa (1 Bar).
The Periodic Table of the Elements was first created by Dimitri Mendeleev, in 1869. He arranged the known Elements according to their Atomic Mass and physical properties. He had the insight to leave spaces in the table for Elements that he thought should exist but were not known at the time.

I n Classic Physics, Electrons orbit around the Nucleus in Electron Shells. The radius of each orbit corresponds to specific quantum energy levels. Each shell may hold ONLY so many Electrons and NO Electrons can exist 'between' the shells. Electron shells have one or more Electron Subshells (s, p, d, f) whose names (Sharp, Principal, Diffuse, & Fundemental) come from Niels Bohr and his Shell Model of the atom. Max Amt. Electrons ⁄ Shell = 2 x (Shell No.)²

W hen an Atom absorbs energy an Electron instantaneously 'jumps' from one orbital to a higher orbital in discrete steps known as quanta. The Electron is NEVER 'in-between' discrete orbits. Conversely, when an Atom gives up energy an Electron instantaneously 'jumps' to a lower orbital, and releases a quanta of energy in the form of a Photon.

I n Real-World Physics however we must take into account Einstein's General Theory of Relativity AND make use of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. These tell us that Electron positions and momentums are impossible to know exactly. Instead, we must consider Electrons within volumes known as Probability Distributions. However, for most Chemical Reactions, near STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) the Classical Physics interpretation is more than adequate.

Alkanes & Alkenes are Hydrocarbons made from only Hydrogen and Carbon. Since Carbon has 4 Valence Electrons it can share 4 Electrons individually or 2 pairs of two Electrons each. This yields two families of compounds…

Alkanes have only single bonds and are designated as Saturated (C_nH_2n+2)
Alkenes have double bonds and are designated as Unsaturated (C_nH_2n)

Alkane	Formula
Methane	CH4
Ethane	C2H6
Propane	C3H8
Butane	C4H10
Pentane	C5H12
Hexane	C6H14
Heptane	C7H16
Octane	C8H18

Alkene	Formula
Methylene	CH2
Ethylene	C2H4
Propylene	C3H6
1-butene	C4H8
1-pentene	C5H10
1-hexene	C6H12
1-heptene	C7H14
1-octene	C8H16

A Lewis Electron Dot Diagram is a tool that shows how an atom's Valence Electrons are shared so they form Covalent Bonds. The Diagram indicates the number of shared and unshared valence electrons. When shared, their outermost shells are complete and the Molecule becomes stable.

• Hydrogen always has 2 Dots since it needs to borrow 1 Electron to fill up it's outermost Shell.
  
• Carbon always has 8 Dots since it needs to borrow 4 Electrons to fill up it's outermost Shell.
• Carbon can also generate very strong Double Covalent Bonds, shown as 4 Dots in a grouping.